Key Insights
The Asia-Pacific lactic acid market, currently exhibiting robust growth, is projected to maintain a significant upward trajectory throughout the forecast period (2025-2033). Driven by increasing demand from the food and beverage industry, particularly within the meat, poultry, fish, confectionery, and bakery sectors, the market is experiencing substantial expansion. The region's large and growing population, coupled with rising disposable incomes and changing consumer preferences towards healthier and naturally-derived food products, fuel this demand. The burgeoning use of lactic acid as a preservative, flavor enhancer, and acidity regulator in various food applications further contributes to market growth. Furthermore, the increasing adoption of lactic acid in the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries, albeit to a lesser extent, contributes to overall market expansion. While challenges such as price volatility of raw materials and stringent regulatory requirements exist, the overall market outlook remains positive, supported by continuous innovation in lactic acid production methods and expanding application areas within the region.
Significant growth is expected from countries like China, India, and Japan, which are major consumers of processed food and beverages. The increasing prevalence of food processing industries in these nations presents an attractive opportunity for lactic acid manufacturers. The preference for natural and organic ingredients is also driving demand for naturally-derived lactic acid, stimulating the growth of this segment. Competition among manufacturers is expected to remain high, prompting companies to focus on product differentiation, cost optimization, and strategic partnerships to gain a competitive edge. The market is further segmented by source (natural and synthetic) and application (food and beverage, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, etc.). While precise market size figures for 2025 and beyond require more detailed data, the provided CAGR of 8.70% coupled with industry trends suggests substantial growth in the Asia-Pacific lactic acid market. The continued rise in processed food consumption, coupled with health-conscious consumers seeking natural ingredients, makes this market highly promising for continued growth and investment.

Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market: A Comprehensive Report (2019-2033)
This in-depth report provides a comprehensive analysis of the Asia-Pacific lactic acid market, encompassing market dynamics, growth trends, regional dominance, product landscape, and key players. The study covers the period 2019-2033, with 2025 as the base and estimated year. This report is essential for industry professionals, investors, and strategic decision-makers seeking to understand and capitalize on the opportunities within this dynamic market. The market is segmented by source (natural, synthetic) and application (meat, poultry & fish, beverages, confectionery, bakery, fruits & vegetables, dairy), offering granular insights into specific market niches. The total market value is projected to reach xx Million by 2033.
Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Market Dynamics & Structure
This section analyzes the competitive landscape, technological advancements, regulatory influences, and market trends shaping the Asia-Pacific lactic acid market. We delve into market concentration, identifying key players and their market share percentages. The report also examines the impact of mergers and acquisitions (M&A) activities, quantifying deal volumes and assessing their strategic implications. Furthermore, we explore the influence of substitute products, consumer demographics, and technological innovation barriers.
- Market Concentration: The Asia-Pacific lactic acid market exhibits a [High/Medium/Low] level of concentration, with the top 5 players holding approximately xx% of the market share in 2025.
- Technological Innovation: Significant innovations in fermentation technologies and downstream processing are driving efficiency gains and cost reductions.
- Regulatory Framework: Stringent food safety regulations and labeling requirements impact market dynamics, particularly in regions with stricter standards.
- Competitive Substitutes: [Mention specific substitute products and their impact on market share].
- M&A Trends: The number of M&A deals in the lactic acid market increased by xx% from 2020 to 2024, driven primarily by [mention reasons].
Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Growth Trends & Insights
This section provides a detailed analysis of the Asia-Pacific lactic acid market's historical and projected growth trajectory. We leverage extensive data analysis to illustrate market size evolution, adoption rates across various applications, and the impact of technological disruptions on market dynamics. The report offers insights into changing consumer preferences and their influence on market demand. Key metrics such as CAGR (Compound Annual Growth Rate) and market penetration rates are incorporated to provide a comprehensive understanding of market growth. The market is projected to exhibit a CAGR of xx% during the forecast period (2025-2033). This growth is propelled by factors such as [explain key drivers, eg., rising demand for natural food preservatives, increasing use in the dairy industry].

Dominant Regions, Countries, or Segments in Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market
This section identifies the leading regions, countries, and segments within the Asia-Pacific lactic acid market driving overall growth. A detailed analysis of market share and growth potential for each segment (natural vs. synthetic; various applications) is presented. We examine the key factors contributing to the dominance of specific regions or segments, including economic policies, infrastructure development, and consumer preferences.
- Leading Region: [Specify region] holds the largest market share due to [explain reasons, e.g., high demand from food and beverage industry, established manufacturing base].
- Leading Country: [Specify country] is a key market driver due to [mention specific reasons, e.g., favorable government policies, strong economic growth].
- Leading Segment (Source): [Natural/Synthetic] lactic acid dominates the market due to [mention specific reasons, e.g., consumer preference for natural ingredients, cost-effectiveness].
- Leading Segment (Application): The [specify application, e.g., food and beverage] segment holds the largest market share driven by [explain reasons, e.g., increasing demand for functional foods, rising consumption of processed foods].
Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Product Landscape
This section provides a concise overview of product innovations, applications, and performance metrics within the Asia-Pacific lactic acid market. We highlight unique selling propositions and discuss technological advancements that are shaping the product landscape, such as the development of high-purity lactic acid for specific applications. This section emphasizes the evolving applications of lactic acid and its impact on the market.
Key Drivers, Barriers & Challenges in Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market
This section identifies the key factors driving market growth, including technological advancements, economic factors, and supportive government policies. We also analyze the challenges and restraints hindering market expansion, focusing on supply chain issues, regulatory hurdles, and competitive pressures.
Key Drivers:
- Increasing demand for natural food preservatives.
- Growing applications in various industries (e.g., pharmaceuticals, cosmetics).
- Government initiatives promoting sustainable and bio-based products.
Key Barriers and Challenges:
- Fluctuations in raw material prices.
- Stringent environmental regulations impacting production costs.
- Intense competition from existing and emerging players.
Emerging Opportunities in Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market
This section highlights emerging trends and opportunities in the Asia-Pacific lactic acid market, focusing on untapped market segments, innovative applications, and evolving consumer preferences. We identify potential areas for growth and expansion. Examples include the increasing adoption of lactic acid in biodegradable plastics and the exploration of new applications in the healthcare and personal care sectors.
Growth Accelerators in the Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Industry
Long-term growth in the Asia-Pacific lactic acid market will be driven by technological breakthroughs in fermentation processes, strategic partnerships fostering innovation, and market expansion into new geographic territories and application areas. These advancements will unlock efficiencies and create new opportunities for growth.
Key Players Shaping the Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Market
- DuPont
- Galactic
- Purac
- Cargill Inc
- Corbion NV
- Henan Jindan Lactic Acid Technology Co Ltd
- Cellulac
- NingXia Hypow Bio-Technology Co Ltd
- [List Not Exhaustive]
Notable Milestones in Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Sector
- [Year/Month]: [Company Name] launched a new high-purity lactic acid product for the pharmaceutical industry.
- [Year/Month]: [Company Name] acquired [Company Name], expanding its market reach and product portfolio.
- [Add more milestones as available]
In-Depth Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Market Outlook
The Asia-Pacific lactic acid market is poised for continued growth, driven by increasing demand from various sectors and ongoing technological advancements. Strategic opportunities exist for companies focusing on innovation, sustainable production, and expansion into emerging markets. The market's future potential is significant, promising considerable returns for players capable of adapting to evolving market dynamics and technological disruptions.
Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Segmentation
-
1. Source
- 1.1. Natural
- 1.2. Synthetic
-
2. Application
- 2.1. Meat, Poultry, and Fish
- 2.2. Beverages
- 2.3. Confectionery
- 2.4. Bakery
- 2.5. Fruits and Vegetable
- 2.6. Dairy
-
3. Geography
- 3.1. China
- 3.2. Japan
- 3.3. India
- 3.4. Australia
- 3.5. Rest of Asia-Pacific
Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Segmentation By Geography
- 1. China
- 2. Japan
- 3. India
- 4. Australia
- 5. Rest of Asia Pacific

Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market REPORT HIGHLIGHTS
Aspects | Details |
---|---|
Study Period | 2019-2033 |
Base Year | 2024 |
Estimated Year | 2025 |
Forecast Period | 2025-2033 |
Historical Period | 2019-2024 |
Growth Rate | CAGR of 8.70% from 2019-2033 |
Segmentation |
|
Table of Contents
- 1. Introduction
- 1.1. Research Scope
- 1.2. Market Segmentation
- 1.3. Research Methodology
- 1.4. Definitions and Assumptions
- 2. Executive Summary
- 2.1. Introduction
- 3. Market Dynamics
- 3.1. Introduction
- 3.2. Market Drivers
- 3.2.1. The Rising Awareness of the Health Benefits Associated with Collagen Consumption; Rising Sport and Fitness Trends Drives the Market Growth
- 3.3. Market Restrains
- 3.3.1. Concerns over the Source and Animal Welfare in Collagen Extraction Limit the Market Growth
- 3.4. Market Trends
- 3.4.1. Growing Demand for Meat Products
- 4. Market Factor Analysis
- 4.1. Porters Five Forces
- 4.2. Supply/Value Chain
- 4.3. PESTEL analysis
- 4.4. Market Entropy
- 4.5. Patent/Trademark Analysis
- 5. Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Source
- 5.1.1. Natural
- 5.1.2. Synthetic
- 5.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 5.2.1. Meat, Poultry, and Fish
- 5.2.2. Beverages
- 5.2.3. Confectionery
- 5.2.4. Bakery
- 5.2.5. Fruits and Vegetable
- 5.2.6. Dairy
- 5.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 5.3.1. China
- 5.3.2. Japan
- 5.3.3. India
- 5.3.4. Australia
- 5.3.5. Rest of Asia-Pacific
- 5.4. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Region
- 5.4.1. China
- 5.4.2. Japan
- 5.4.3. India
- 5.4.4. Australia
- 5.4.5. Rest of Asia Pacific
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Source
- 6. China Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Source
- 6.1.1. Natural
- 6.1.2. Synthetic
- 6.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 6.2.1. Meat, Poultry, and Fish
- 6.2.2. Beverages
- 6.2.3. Confectionery
- 6.2.4. Bakery
- 6.2.5. Fruits and Vegetable
- 6.2.6. Dairy
- 6.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 6.3.1. China
- 6.3.2. Japan
- 6.3.3. India
- 6.3.4. Australia
- 6.3.5. Rest of Asia-Pacific
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Source
- 7. Japan Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Source
- 7.1.1. Natural
- 7.1.2. Synthetic
- 7.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 7.2.1. Meat, Poultry, and Fish
- 7.2.2. Beverages
- 7.2.3. Confectionery
- 7.2.4. Bakery
- 7.2.5. Fruits and Vegetable
- 7.2.6. Dairy
- 7.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 7.3.1. China
- 7.3.2. Japan
- 7.3.3. India
- 7.3.4. Australia
- 7.3.5. Rest of Asia-Pacific
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Source
- 8. India Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Source
- 8.1.1. Natural
- 8.1.2. Synthetic
- 8.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 8.2.1. Meat, Poultry, and Fish
- 8.2.2. Beverages
- 8.2.3. Confectionery
- 8.2.4. Bakery
- 8.2.5. Fruits and Vegetable
- 8.2.6. Dairy
- 8.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 8.3.1. China
- 8.3.2. Japan
- 8.3.3. India
- 8.3.4. Australia
- 8.3.5. Rest of Asia-Pacific
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Source
- 9. Australia Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 9.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Source
- 9.1.1. Natural
- 9.1.2. Synthetic
- 9.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 9.2.1. Meat, Poultry, and Fish
- 9.2.2. Beverages
- 9.2.3. Confectionery
- 9.2.4. Bakery
- 9.2.5. Fruits and Vegetable
- 9.2.6. Dairy
- 9.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 9.3.1. China
- 9.3.2. Japan
- 9.3.3. India
- 9.3.4. Australia
- 9.3.5. Rest of Asia-Pacific
- 9.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Source
- 10. Rest of Asia Pacific Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 10.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Source
- 10.1.1. Natural
- 10.1.2. Synthetic
- 10.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 10.2.1. Meat, Poultry, and Fish
- 10.2.2. Beverages
- 10.2.3. Confectionery
- 10.2.4. Bakery
- 10.2.5. Fruits and Vegetable
- 10.2.6. Dairy
- 10.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 10.3.1. China
- 10.3.2. Japan
- 10.3.3. India
- 10.3.4. Australia
- 10.3.5. Rest of Asia-Pacific
- 10.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Source
- 11. China Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 12. Japan Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 13. India Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 14. South Korea Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 15. Taiwan Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 16. Australia Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 17. Rest of Asia-Pacific Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 18. Competitive Analysis
- 18.1. Market Share Analysis 2024
- 18.2. Company Profiles
- 18.2.1 Henan Jindan Lactic Acid Technology Co Ltd
- 18.2.1.1. Overview
- 18.2.1.2. Products
- 18.2.1.3. SWOT Analysis
- 18.2.1.4. Recent Developments
- 18.2.1.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 18.2.2 Cellulac
- 18.2.2.1. Overview
- 18.2.2.2. Products
- 18.2.2.3. SWOT Analysis
- 18.2.2.4. Recent Developments
- 18.2.2.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 18.2.3 NingXia Hypow Bio-Technology Co Ltd
- 18.2.3.1. Overview
- 18.2.3.2. Products
- 18.2.3.3. SWOT Analysis
- 18.2.3.4. Recent Developments
- 18.2.3.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 18.2.4 DuPont
- 18.2.4.1. Overview
- 18.2.4.2. Products
- 18.2.4.3. SWOT Analysis
- 18.2.4.4. Recent Developments
- 18.2.4.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 18.2.5 Galactic
- 18.2.5.1. Overview
- 18.2.5.2. Products
- 18.2.5.3. SWOT Analysis
- 18.2.5.4. Recent Developments
- 18.2.5.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 18.2.6 Purac*List Not Exhaustive
- 18.2.6.1. Overview
- 18.2.6.2. Products
- 18.2.6.3. SWOT Analysis
- 18.2.6.4. Recent Developments
- 18.2.6.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 18.2.7 Cargill Inc
- 18.2.7.1. Overview
- 18.2.7.2. Products
- 18.2.7.3. SWOT Analysis
- 18.2.7.4. Recent Developments
- 18.2.7.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 18.2.8 Corbion NV
- 18.2.8.1. Overview
- 18.2.8.2. Products
- 18.2.8.3. SWOT Analysis
- 18.2.8.4. Recent Developments
- 18.2.8.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 18.2.1 Henan Jindan Lactic Acid Technology Co Ltd
List of Figures
- Figure 1: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Breakdown (Million, %) by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 2: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Share (%) by Company 2024
List of Tables
- Table 1: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 2: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Source 2019 & 2032
- Table 3: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 4: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 5: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 6: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 7: China Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 8: Japan Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 9: India Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 10: South Korea Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 11: Taiwan Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 12: Australia Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 13: Rest of Asia-Pacific Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 14: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Source 2019 & 2032
- Table 15: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 16: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 17: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 18: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Source 2019 & 2032
- Table 19: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 20: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 21: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 22: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Source 2019 & 2032
- Table 23: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 24: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 25: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 26: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Source 2019 & 2032
- Table 27: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 28: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 29: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 30: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Source 2019 & 2032
- Table 31: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 32: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 33: Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the projected Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of the Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market?
The projected CAGR is approximately 8.70%.
2. Which companies are prominent players in the Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market?
Key companies in the market include Henan Jindan Lactic Acid Technology Co Ltd, Cellulac, NingXia Hypow Bio-Technology Co Ltd, DuPont, Galactic, Purac*List Not Exhaustive, Cargill Inc, Corbion NV.
3. What are the main segments of the Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market?
The market segments include Source, Application, Geography.
4. Can you provide details about the market size?
The market size is estimated to be USD XX Million as of 2022.
5. What are some drivers contributing to market growth?
The Rising Awareness of the Health Benefits Associated with Collagen Consumption; Rising Sport and Fitness Trends Drives the Market Growth.
6. What are the notable trends driving market growth?
Growing Demand for Meat Products.
7. Are there any restraints impacting market growth?
Concerns over the Source and Animal Welfare in Collagen Extraction Limit the Market Growth.
8. Can you provide examples of recent developments in the market?
N/A
9. What pricing options are available for accessing the report?
Pricing options include single-user, multi-user, and enterprise licenses priced at USD 4750, USD 5250, and USD 8750 respectively.
10. Is the market size provided in terms of value or volume?
The market size is provided in terms of value, measured in Million.
11. Are there any specific market keywords associated with the report?
Yes, the market keyword associated with the report is "Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market," which aids in identifying and referencing the specific market segment covered.
12. How do I determine which pricing option suits my needs best?
The pricing options vary based on user requirements and access needs. Individual users may opt for single-user licenses, while businesses requiring broader access may choose multi-user or enterprise licenses for cost-effective access to the report.
13. Are there any additional resources or data provided in the Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market report?
While the report offers comprehensive insights, it's advisable to review the specific contents or supplementary materials provided to ascertain if additional resources or data are available.
14. How can I stay updated on further developments or reports in the Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market?
To stay informed about further developments, trends, and reports in the Asia-Pacific Lactic Acid Market, consider subscribing to industry newsletters, following relevant companies and organizations, or regularly checking reputable industry news sources and publications.
Methodology
Step 1 - Identification of Relevant Samples Size from Population Database



Step 2 - Approaches for Defining Global Market Size (Value, Volume* & Price*)

Note*: In applicable scenarios
Step 3 - Data Sources
Primary Research
- Web Analytics
- Survey Reports
- Research Institute
- Latest Research Reports
- Opinion Leaders
Secondary Research
- Annual Reports
- White Paper
- Latest Press Release
- Industry Association
- Paid Database
- Investor Presentations

Step 4 - Data Triangulation
Involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study
These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a program - participants, other researchers, program staff, other community members, and so on.
Then we put all data in single framework & apply various statistical tools to find out the dynamic on the market.
During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence