Key Insights
The European flexible packaging market, valued at €60.16 billion in 2025, is projected to experience robust growth, exhibiting a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 5.01% from 2025 to 2033. This expansion is driven by several key factors. The rising demand for convenient and shelf-stable food products fuels the need for flexible packaging solutions across various segments, including pouches (retort, stand-up, and flat), bags (gusseted and wicketed), and films. Growth within the food and beverage sector is particularly significant, further amplified by increasing e-commerce penetration, demanding efficient and protective packaging for delivery. The healthcare and pharmaceuticals industry also contributes substantially, leveraging flexible packaging for its ability to maintain product sterility and extend shelf life. Furthermore, the cosmetics and personal care sector is adopting flexible packaging for its lightweight, versatile nature and cost-effectiveness. While the adoption of sustainable and eco-friendly materials like biodegradable polymers presents challenges, it also represents a significant growth opportunity as consumers and regulations increasingly prioritize environmentally conscious packaging. Leading companies such as Amcor PLC, Berry Global Inc., and Mondi Group are actively innovating and investing in sustainable solutions to meet this growing demand. Competition remains intense, with companies focusing on product diversification and geographic expansion to maintain market share. Regional variations exist, with Western Europe (particularly Germany, France, and the UK) currently dominating the market, although Eastern and Central Europe are expected to witness faster growth in the coming years.
Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Market Size (In Billion)
The market segmentation reveals further nuances. Polyethylene (PE) and Biaxially Oriented Polypropylene (BOPP) remain the dominant material types due to their cost-effectiveness and versatility. However, the increasing adoption of sustainable alternatives like biodegradable polymers will likely alter this landscape over the forecast period. The preference for pouches over other packaging formats reflects the growing demand for convenient and easy-to-use packaging. While certain restraints, such as fluctuations in raw material prices and environmental concerns, exist, the overall outlook for the European flexible packaging market remains positive, fueled by the ongoing growth in key end-user verticals and technological advancements in packaging materials and design. The market's consistent growth and diverse applications ensure its continued relevance across various industries.
Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Company Market Share
Europe Flexible Packaging Industry: Market Report 2019-2033
This comprehensive report provides a detailed analysis of the Europe flexible packaging industry, offering invaluable insights for industry professionals, investors, and strategic decision-makers. Covering the period 2019-2033, with a focus on 2025, this report delves into market dynamics, growth trends, dominant segments, and key players shaping this dynamic sector. The report is segmented by material type, product type, end-user vertical, and geography (Western Europe, Eastern and Central Europe, and Spain), providing a granular understanding of the market landscape. Market values are presented in million units.
Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Market Dynamics & Structure
The European flexible packaging market is characterized by a moderately consolidated structure, with both large multinational corporations and smaller specialized players vying for market share. The industry is experiencing significant technological innovation, driven by the demand for sustainable and high-performance packaging solutions. Stringent regulatory frameworks focusing on recyclability and food safety are shaping industry practices. Competitive pressure from alternative packaging materials and evolving consumer preferences present continuous challenges. M&A activity remains a significant factor, with larger players consolidating their position through acquisitions of smaller companies.
- Market Concentration: The top 5 players hold an estimated xx% market share in 2025.
- Technological Innovation: Focus on sustainable materials (e.g., bioplastics), improved barrier properties, and lightweight designs.
- Regulatory Landscape: Emphasis on recyclability, compostability, and reduced environmental impact.
- Competitive Substitutes: Rigid plastics, glass, and metal containers pose competitive challenges.
- M&A Activity: xx major mergers and acquisitions occurred between 2019 and 2024, with a predicted xx deals in the forecast period.
- Innovation Barriers: High R&D costs and regulatory complexities hinder the adoption of novel technologies.
Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Growth Trends & Insights
The European flexible packaging market experienced substantial growth during the historical period (2019-2024), with a CAGR of xx%. This growth is attributed to the increasing demand for convenient and cost-effective packaging across various end-user verticals, particularly in food, beverage, and healthcare sectors. The market is expected to continue its growth trajectory during the forecast period (2025-2033), driven by factors such as changing consumer preferences, e-commerce growth, and technological advancements in packaging materials and manufacturing processes. Market penetration of sustainable packaging solutions is steadily increasing, with an estimated xx% adoption rate in 2025. Technological disruptions, like the adoption of smart packaging and digital printing, are further accelerating market growth. Consumer behavior shifts toward eco-friendly and convenient packaging options are key drivers of growth.
Dominant Regions, Countries, or Segments in Europe Flexible Packaging Industry
Western Europe currently dominates the European flexible packaging market, accounting for an estimated xx% of the total market value in 2025. Within Western Europe, Germany and France are the leading national markets, driven by robust food and beverage industries and high per capita consumption. The food sector, particularly beverages and other food products, remains the largest end-user segment, representing approximately xx% of market demand in 2025. Polyethylene (PE) is the most widely used material type, followed by Biaxially Oriented Polypropylene (BOPP). Pouches (stand-up and retort) represent the most significant product category.
- Key Growth Drivers (Western Europe): Strong economic activity, well-developed infrastructure, and high consumer spending.
- Key Growth Drivers (Food Sector): Increasing demand for convenient and ready-to-eat meals, and growth of e-commerce grocery deliveries.
- Market Share: Western Europe holds xx%, while Eastern and Central Europe holds xx% and Spain holds xx% in 2025.
- Growth Potential: Eastern and Central Europe presents significant growth opportunities due to rising disposable incomes and expanding FMCG sectors.
Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Product Landscape
The European flexible packaging market offers a diverse range of products, including pouches (stand-up, retort, flat), bags (gusseted, wicketed), and packaging films. Recent innovations focus on improved barrier properties, enhanced printability, and sustainable materials. Many products emphasize enhanced shelf life, tamper evidence, and recyclability. Unique selling propositions include eco-friendly designs, optimized functionality, and cost-effectiveness. Technological advancements, like advanced printing techniques and automated packaging lines, further enhance product quality and efficiency.
Key Drivers, Barriers & Challenges in Europe Flexible Packaging Industry
Key Drivers:
- Growing demand for convenient and shelf-stable food and beverage products.
- Increased adoption of sustainable and eco-friendly packaging materials.
- Advancements in flexible packaging technologies, such as smart packaging and active packaging.
- Rise in e-commerce and online grocery shopping.
Key Challenges:
- Fluctuations in raw material prices, particularly for polymers.
- Stringent environmental regulations and the need for sustainable packaging solutions.
- Intense competition from established and emerging players.
- Supply chain disruptions impacting the availability of raw materials and packaging components.
Emerging Opportunities in Europe Flexible Packaging Industry
- Growing demand for sustainable and recyclable flexible packaging solutions.
- Increasing adoption of active and intelligent packaging technologies.
- Expanding applications in the healthcare and pharmaceutical industries.
- Growth in the e-commerce sector and online food delivery services.
Growth Accelerators in the Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Industry
Technological advancements in materials science and manufacturing processes are key drivers of long-term growth. Strategic partnerships between packaging manufacturers and brand owners are facilitating the development of innovative packaging solutions. Market expansion into emerging economies within Europe and increased focus on customized packaging solutions will further fuel market growth.
Key Players Shaping the Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Market
- UFlex Limited
- Bak Ambalaj
- Gualapack SpA
- Di Mauro Flexible Packaging
- Bischof + Klein SE & Co KG
- CDM Packaging
- Schur Flexible
- Wipak Oy
- Mondi Group
- Danaflex Group
- Amcor PLC
- BERRY GLOBAL INC
- Aluflexpack Group
- Treofan group (Bc Jindal)
- Coveris Holdings
- Cellografica Gerosa SpA
- Constantia Flexibles
- ProAmpac LLC
- Sipospack
- Huhtamaki Oyj
- ePac Holdings LLC
- AL INVEST BA
Notable Milestones in Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Sector
- April 2023: Berry Global announces the development of its International Center of Excellence and Circular Innovation Hub in Barcelona, Spain, focusing on sustainable packaging solutions.
- April 2022: Mondi launches new recyclable packaging solutions for the food industry at AnugaFoodTec, Cologne, Germany, focusing on reducing food waste.
In-Depth Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Market Outlook
The future of the European flexible packaging market is bright, with continued growth driven by innovation, sustainability concerns, and evolving consumer preferences. Strategic investments in research and development, coupled with collaborations across the value chain, will unlock new opportunities for growth and market expansion. The focus on sustainable and recyclable packaging materials will shape industry dynamics, presenting significant opportunities for companies that can deliver innovative and environmentally friendly solutions.
Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Segmentation
-
1. Material Type
- 1.1. Polyethene (PE)
- 1.2. Biaxially Oriented Polypropylene (BOPP)
- 1.3. Cast Polypropylene (CPP)
- 1.4. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
- 1.5. PET
- 1.6. Other Material Types (EVOH, EVA, PA, etc.)
-
2. Product Type
- 2.1. Pouches
- 2.2. Bags (Gusseted and Wicketed)
-
2.3. Packaging Films
- 2.3.1. PE-based
- 2.3.2. BOPET
- 2.3.3. CPP and BOPP
- 2.3.4. PVC
- 2.3.5. Other Film Types
- 2.4. Other Product Types
-
3. End-user Verticals
-
3.1. Food
- 3.1.1. Frozen Food
- 3.1.2. Dairy Products
- 3.1.3. Fruits and Vegetables
- 3.1.4. Other Food Products
- 3.2. Beverage
- 3.3. Healthcare and Pharmaceuticals
- 3.4. Cosmetics and Personal Care
- 3.5. Other End-user verticals
-
3.1. Food
Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Segmentation By Geography
-
1. Europe
- 1.1. United Kingdom
- 1.2. Germany
- 1.3. France
- 1.4. Italy
- 1.5. Spain
- 1.6. Netherlands
- 1.7. Belgium
- 1.8. Sweden
- 1.9. Norway
- 1.10. Poland
- 1.11. Denmark
Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Regional Market Share
Geographic Coverage of Europe Flexible Packaging Industry
Europe Flexible Packaging Industry REPORT HIGHLIGHTS
| Aspects | Details |
|---|---|
| Study Period | 2020-2034 |
| Base Year | 2025 |
| Estimated Year | 2026 |
| Forecast Period | 2026-2034 |
| Historical Period | 2020-2025 |
| Growth Rate | CAGR of 5.01% from 2020-2034 |
| Segmentation |
|
Table of Contents
- 1. Introduction
- 1.1. Research Scope
- 1.2. Market Segmentation
- 1.3. Research Methodology
- 1.4. Definitions and Assumptions
- 2. Executive Summary
- 2.1. Introduction
- 3. Market Dynamics
- 3.1. Introduction
- 3.2. Market Drivers
- 3.2.1. Steady Rise in Demand for Processed Food; Move Toward Light Weighting Expected to Spur Volume Demand
- 3.3. Market Restrains
- 3.3.1. Dynamic Nature of Regulations in the Region
- 3.4. Market Trends
- 3.4.1. Food Segment is Expected to Drive the Flexible Packaging Market in the Region
- 4. Market Factor Analysis
- 4.1. Porters Five Forces
- 4.2. Supply/Value Chain
- 4.3. PESTEL analysis
- 4.4. Market Entropy
- 4.5. Patent/Trademark Analysis
- 5. Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2020-2032
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Material Type
- 5.1.1. Polyethene (PE)
- 5.1.2. Biaxially Oriented Polypropylene (BOPP)
- 5.1.3. Cast Polypropylene (CPP)
- 5.1.4. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
- 5.1.5. PET
- 5.1.6. Other Material Types (EVOH, EVA, PA, etc.)
- 5.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Product Type
- 5.2.1. Pouches
- 5.2.2. Bags (Gusseted and Wicketed)
- 5.2.3. Packaging Films
- 5.2.3.1. PE-based
- 5.2.3.2. BOPET
- 5.2.3.3. CPP and BOPP
- 5.2.3.4. PVC
- 5.2.3.5. Other Film Types
- 5.2.4. Other Product Types
- 5.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End-user Verticals
- 5.3.1. Food
- 5.3.1.1. Frozen Food
- 5.3.1.2. Dairy Products
- 5.3.1.3. Fruits and Vegetables
- 5.3.1.4. Other Food Products
- 5.3.2. Beverage
- 5.3.3. Healthcare and Pharmaceuticals
- 5.3.4. Cosmetics and Personal Care
- 5.3.5. Other End-user verticals
- 5.3.1. Food
- 5.4. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Region
- 5.4.1. Europe
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Material Type
- 6. Competitive Analysis
- 6.1. Market Share Analysis 2025
- 6.2. Company Profiles
- 6.2.1 UFlex Limited*List Not Exhaustive
- 6.2.1.1. Overview
- 6.2.1.2. Products
- 6.2.1.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.1.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.1.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.2 Bak Ambalaj
- 6.2.2.1. Overview
- 6.2.2.2. Products
- 6.2.2.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.2.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.2.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.3 Gualapack SpA
- 6.2.3.1. Overview
- 6.2.3.2. Products
- 6.2.3.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.3.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.3.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.4 Di Mauro Flexible Packaging
- 6.2.4.1. Overview
- 6.2.4.2. Products
- 6.2.4.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.4.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.4.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.5 Bischof + Klein SE & Co KG
- 6.2.5.1. Overview
- 6.2.5.2. Products
- 6.2.5.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.5.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.5.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.6 CDM Packaging
- 6.2.6.1. Overview
- 6.2.6.2. Products
- 6.2.6.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.6.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.6.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.7 Schur Flexible
- 6.2.7.1. Overview
- 6.2.7.2. Products
- 6.2.7.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.7.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.7.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.8 Wipak Oy
- 6.2.8.1. Overview
- 6.2.8.2. Products
- 6.2.8.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.8.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.8.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.9 Mondi Group
- 6.2.9.1. Overview
- 6.2.9.2. Products
- 6.2.9.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.9.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.9.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.10 Danaflex Group
- 6.2.10.1. Overview
- 6.2.10.2. Products
- 6.2.10.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.10.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.10.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.11 Amcor PLC
- 6.2.11.1. Overview
- 6.2.11.2. Products
- 6.2.11.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.11.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.11.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.12 BERRY GLOBAL INC
- 6.2.12.1. Overview
- 6.2.12.2. Products
- 6.2.12.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.12.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.12.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.13 Aluflexpack Group
- 6.2.13.1. Overview
- 6.2.13.2. Products
- 6.2.13.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.13.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.13.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.14 Treofan group (Bc Jindal)
- 6.2.14.1. Overview
- 6.2.14.2. Products
- 6.2.14.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.14.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.14.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.15 Coveris Holdings
- 6.2.15.1. Overview
- 6.2.15.2. Products
- 6.2.15.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.15.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.15.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.16 Cellografica Gerosa SpA
- 6.2.16.1. Overview
- 6.2.16.2. Products
- 6.2.16.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.16.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.16.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.17 Constantia Flexibles
- 6.2.17.1. Overview
- 6.2.17.2. Products
- 6.2.17.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.17.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.17.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.18 ProAmpac LLC
- 6.2.18.1. Overview
- 6.2.18.2. Products
- 6.2.18.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.18.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.18.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.19 Sipospack
- 6.2.19.1. Overview
- 6.2.19.2. Products
- 6.2.19.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.19.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.19.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.20 Huhtamaki Oyj
- 6.2.20.1. Overview
- 6.2.20.2. Products
- 6.2.20.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.20.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.20.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.21 ePac Holdings LLC
- 6.2.21.1. Overview
- 6.2.21.2. Products
- 6.2.21.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.21.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.21.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.22 AL INVEST BA
- 6.2.22.1. Overview
- 6.2.22.2. Products
- 6.2.22.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.22.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.22.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.1 UFlex Limited*List Not Exhaustive
List of Figures
- Figure 1: Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Revenue Breakdown (Million, %) by Product 2025 & 2033
- Figure 2: Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Share (%) by Company 2025
List of Tables
- Table 1: Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Material Type 2020 & 2033
- Table 2: Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Product Type 2020 & 2033
- Table 3: Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by End-user Verticals 2020 & 2033
- Table 4: Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2020 & 2033
- Table 5: Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Material Type 2020 & 2033
- Table 6: Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Product Type 2020 & 2033
- Table 7: Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by End-user Verticals 2020 & 2033
- Table 8: Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2020 & 2033
- Table 9: United Kingdom Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 10: Germany Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 11: France Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 12: Italy Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 13: Spain Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 14: Netherlands Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 15: Belgium Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 16: Sweden Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 17: Norway Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 18: Poland Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
- Table 19: Denmark Europe Flexible Packaging Industry Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2020 & 2033
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the projected Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of the Europe Flexible Packaging Industry?
The projected CAGR is approximately 5.01%.
2. Which companies are prominent players in the Europe Flexible Packaging Industry?
Key companies in the market include UFlex Limited*List Not Exhaustive, Bak Ambalaj, Gualapack SpA, Di Mauro Flexible Packaging, Bischof + Klein SE & Co KG, CDM Packaging, Schur Flexible, Wipak Oy, Mondi Group, Danaflex Group, Amcor PLC, BERRY GLOBAL INC, Aluflexpack Group, Treofan group (Bc Jindal), Coveris Holdings, Cellografica Gerosa SpA, Constantia Flexibles, ProAmpac LLC, Sipospack, Huhtamaki Oyj, ePac Holdings LLC, AL INVEST BA.
3. What are the main segments of the Europe Flexible Packaging Industry?
The market segments include Material Type, Product Type, End-user Verticals.
4. Can you provide details about the market size?
The market size is estimated to be USD 60.16 Million as of 2022.
5. What are some drivers contributing to market growth?
Steady Rise in Demand for Processed Food; Move Toward Light Weighting Expected to Spur Volume Demand.
6. What are the notable trends driving market growth?
Food Segment is Expected to Drive the Flexible Packaging Market in the Region.
7. Are there any restraints impacting market growth?
Dynamic Nature of Regulations in the Region.
8. Can you provide examples of recent developments in the market?
April 2023 - The ability to access innovative, sustainable packaging solutions is more important than ever as customers worldwide strive to shift to a circular, net-zero economy. Berry Global, which designs and produces innovative, sustainable packaging solutions, will begin developing its International Center of Excellence and Circular Innovation Hub in Barcelona, Spain, as early as the third quarter of 2023.
9. What pricing options are available for accessing the report?
Pricing options include single-user, multi-user, and enterprise licenses priced at USD 4750, USD 4950, and USD 6800 respectively.
10. Is the market size provided in terms of value or volume?
The market size is provided in terms of value, measured in Million.
11. Are there any specific market keywords associated with the report?
Yes, the market keyword associated with the report is "Europe Flexible Packaging Industry," which aids in identifying and referencing the specific market segment covered.
12. How do I determine which pricing option suits my needs best?
The pricing options vary based on user requirements and access needs. Individual users may opt for single-user licenses, while businesses requiring broader access may choose multi-user or enterprise licenses for cost-effective access to the report.
13. Are there any additional resources or data provided in the Europe Flexible Packaging Industry report?
While the report offers comprehensive insights, it's advisable to review the specific contents or supplementary materials provided to ascertain if additional resources or data are available.
14. How can I stay updated on further developments or reports in the Europe Flexible Packaging Industry?
To stay informed about further developments, trends, and reports in the Europe Flexible Packaging Industry, consider subscribing to industry newsletters, following relevant companies and organizations, or regularly checking reputable industry news sources and publications.
Methodology
Step 1 - Identification of Relevant Samples Size from Population Database
Step 2 - Approaches for Defining Global Market Size (Value, Volume* & Price*)
Note*: In applicable scenarios
Step 3 - Data Sources
Primary Research
- Web Analytics
- Survey Reports
- Research Institute
- Latest Research Reports
- Opinion Leaders
Secondary Research
- Annual Reports
- White Paper
- Latest Press Release
- Industry Association
- Paid Database
- Investor Presentations
Step 4 - Data Triangulation
Involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study
These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a program - participants, other researchers, program staff, other community members, and so on.
Then we put all data in single framework & apply various statistical tools to find out the dynamic on the market.
During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence